When working abroad for the US government, it is possible to have the time working abroad counted as physical presence in the US for naturalization purposes, however such individuals still must wait until they have a green card for 3 years or 5 years, unlike the options I mentioned above.
Children under 18 can derive US citizenship through their parent(s) through either the Child Citizenship Act or N-600K process without having lived in the US for any specific length of time (although either option will require presence in the US at some point, and requires the parent or grandparent to have a certain number of years of presence in the US).
Apart from that, the only other thing I can think of is some obscure law which allows the US government to grant citizenship to a very small number of people (something like 5 per year) for outstanding service to the US regardless of how long they've lived in the US, but I can't find the details of it now.